حمایت حقوقی از پناهجویان تغییرات اقلیمی

نوع مقاله : مقاله علمی- پژوهشی مستقل

نویسندگان

1 دانشیار دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی دانشگاه تهران

2 کارشناس ارشد حقوق بین‌الملل‌ عمومی، دانشگاه هلسینکی

چکیده

با افزایش فعالیت‌های صنعتی بشر در چند دهه گذشته، الگوهای آب و هوایی کره زمین بیش‌ازپیش دچار تغییر شده است. این تغییرات اقلیمی در نقاط آسیب‌پذیر منجر به فجایعی چون بالا آمدن سطح آب دریاها، جریان‌های آب و هوایی شدید و نیز خشک‌سالی و کمبود آب می‌شود. یکی از مهم‌ترین آثار این وقایع بر زندگی انسان‌ها، ایجاد جریان‌های جدید مهاجرت اجباری است. پیش‌بینی می‌شود که تا پایان قرن جاری بیش از دویست میلیون نفر در سراسر دنیا در اثر نتایج مستقیم تغییرات اقلیمی ناچار به پناه‌جویی می‌شوند. حمایت از پناه‌جویانی تقریباً بیست برابر بزرگ‌تر از پناهندگان فعلی تحت حمایت نهادهای حقوقی، دغدغه‌ای نوین در عرصه حقوق بین‌الملل‌ است. مقاله حاضر تلاش نموده است تا با بررسی مهم‌ترین اسناد بین‌المللی و منطقه‌ای مرتبط به حقوق پناهندگان، به این نکته توجه کند که با توجه به خصوصیات خاص این گروه نوظهور‌، به نظر می‌رسد که نظام حقوقی حاضر قابلیت حمایت از پناه‌جویان ناشی از تغییرات اقلیمی را ندارد. اگرچه عمدتاً در سطح منطقه‌ای تلاش‌های قابل‌توجهی در ارتباط با این گروه از آوارگان شکل‌گرفته است، به نظر می‌رسد سازوکارهای نوینی در هر دو سطح منطقه‌ای و جهانی برای شناخت حقوق و نیز رسیدگی به امور پناه‌جویان تغییرات اقلیمی موردنیاز باشد.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Legal Protection for Climate Change Refugees

نویسندگان [English]

  • Nassrin Mossafa 1
  • Houra Hosseinzadeh Hashemi 2
1 Faculty of Law & Political Sciences, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
2 MA in International Law, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland.
چکیده [English]

The increased industrial activities during the past decades have resulted in fundamental changes in the climatic patterns. In the most vulnerable places, these climate changes could lead to disasters such as sea level rise, increased frequency of extreme weather, and drought and water scarcity. One of the most important consequences of these events on humans' lives is the creation of new flows of forced migration. It is predicted that over the course of this century, more than two hundred million people will be displaced as a direct result of climate change. Protection of a new group of asylum seekers, which is almost twenty times bigger than what the refugee instruments currently protect, is one of the emerging concerns of the international legal studies. This article aims to illustrate the incapability of the current refugee protection system in providing sufficient protection for climate change-induced displaced persons through the analysis of the leading international and regional legal documents relating to the refugees' rights and protection, as well as evaluating the specific requirements of this group of refugees. Despite the significant attempts towards protecting the climate change refugees in regional level, there is still a serious need for a novel mechanism both in regional and international domains in order for the authorities to deal with this issue.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Refugee
  • Climate Change
  • Displacement
  • Refugee Law
  • Refugee Convention 1951
  •  

    Books:

    • Carlier, Jean Yves, and Dirk Vanheule. eds., Europe Et Les Réfugiés: Un Défi?. Vol. 1The Hauge: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,  1997.
    • Hathaway, James C. The Law of Refugee Status. Vol104 Toronto: Butterworths, 1991.
    • Hathaway, James C. The Rights of Refugees under International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
    • Hyndman, Jennifer. Managing Displacement:Refugees and the Politics of Humanitarianism. Vol. 16. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,  2000.
    • Jackson, Ivor C. The Refugee Concept in Group Situations. Vol. 30 The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1999.
    • Loescher, Gil, Alexander Betts, and James Milner. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): the politics and practice of refugee protection into the  21st century. Routledge,  2008.
    • Nicholson, Frances and Patrick Twomey. Ed., Refugee Rights and Realities: Evolving International Concepts and Regimes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
    • Robert, Paul, Josette Rey-Debove, and Alain Rey. , Le nouveau petit Robert. Dictionnaires Le Robert, 1993.
    • Weissbecker, Inka. Climate Change and Human Well-Being. New York: Springer Fachmedien,  2011.
    • Zieck, Marjoleine. UNHCR and Voluntary Repatriation of Refugees: A Legal Analysis. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,  1997.

     

    Articles:

    • Abebe, Allehone Mulugeta "The Kampala Convention and environmentally induced displacement in Africa." IOM Intersessional Workshop on Climate Change, Environmental Degradation and Migration.  2011.
    • Biermann, Frank, and Ingrid Boas. "Preparing for a warmer world: Towards a global governance system to protect climate refugees." Global Environmental Politics  10, no. 1 (2010): 60-88.
    • Biermann, Frank, and Ingrid Boas. "Protecting climate refugees: the case for a global protocol." Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 506 No. 6 ,2008
    • Cooper, Jessica B. "Environmental refugees: Meeting the requirements of the refugee definition." New York University Environmental Law Journal 6 (1997): 480.
      • Cunliffe, S. Alex and Pugh, Michael. “UNHCR as Leader in Humanitarian Assistance: A Triumph of Politics over Law?”in Refugee Rights and Realities: Evolving International Concepts and Regimes, edited by Frances Nicholson and Patrick Twomey,1751-199. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
      • DeWitte, Claire. “At the Water’s Edge: Legal Protections and Funding for a New Generation of Climate Change Refugees”, Ocean and Coastal Law Journal 16(2010-2011): 211-238.
      • Docherty, Bonnie, and Tyler Giannini. "Confronting a rising tide: a proposal for a convention on climate change refugees." Harvrad Environmental Law Review. 33 (2009): 349.
      • Ďurková P., A. Gromilova, B. Kiss, and M. Plaku. "Climate refugees in the 21 st century”, Regional Academy on the United Nations 2012.
      • Emanuel, Kerry. "Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years." Nature 436, no. 7051 (2005): 686-688.
      • Falstrom, Dana Zartner. "Stemming the flow of environmental displacement: Creating a convention to protect persons and preserve the environment." Colorado Journal. International Environmental Law and Policy (2001): 1-215.
      • Fitzpatrick, Joan. "Revitalizing the 1951 Refugee Convention," Harvard Human rights Journal. 9, 1996.
      • Goodwin-Gill, Guy S. "Entry and Exclusion of Refugees: The Obligations of States and the Protection Function of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees." Michigan Year Book International Legal Studies. 3, 1982.
      • Goodwin-Gill, Guy. S. “Refugee Identity and Protection’s Fading Prospect,”in Refugee Rights and Realities: Evolving International Concepts and Regimes, edited by Frances Nicholson and Patrick Twomey, 220-249. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
      • Hathaway, James C., and William S. Hicks. "Is There A Subjective Element in the Refugee Convention's Requirement of Well-Founded Fear." Michigan Journal International Law 26, 2004.
      • Kalin, Walter and Nina Schrepfer, "Internal displacement and the Kampala Convention; an opportunity for development actors" Internal Displacement Monitoring Center, 2012.
      • Lopez, Aurelie, “The Protection of Environmentally-Displaced Persons in International Law,” Environmental Law  37 , 2007: 365.
      • Millar, Ilona. "There's No Place Like Home: Human Displacement and Climate Change." Austlaralian International Law Journal 14 (2007): 71.
      • Miranda, Carlos Ortiz. “Toward a Broader Definition of Refugee: 20th Century Development Trends,” California, Washington, International law Journal  20, 315, 1989-1990.
      • Norwegian Refugee Council & Internal Displacement Monitoring Center, “The Kampala convention two years on: time to turn theory into practice”, 8 Dec. 2014
      • Steinbock, Daniel J. “The Refugee Definition as Law: Issue of Interpretation,” in Refugee Rights and Realities: Evolving International Concepts and Regimes, edited by Frances Nicholson and Patrick Twomey, 13-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ,1999.
      • Sztucki, Jerzi. “Who Is a Refugee? The Convention Definition: Universal or Obsolete?”in Refugee Rights and Realities: Evolving International Concepts and Regimes, edited by Frances Nicholson and Patrick Twomey, 55-80. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
      • Tesar, Jenny, “Our Fragile Planet”, Global Warming  8-9, 1991.
      • Tuitt, Patricia. "Rethinking the Refugee Concept'." Refugee Rights and Realities: Evolving International Concepts and Regimes, edited by Frances Nicholson and Patrick Twomey, 106-118. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
      • Turk, Volker. “The Role of UNHCR in the Development of International Refugee Lawin Refugee Rights and Realities: Evolving International Concepts and Regimes, edited by Frances  Nicholson and Patrick Twomey,153-174. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
        • Williams, Angela. "Turning the tide: recognizing climate change refugees in international law." Law & Policy 30, no. 4 (2008): 502-529.

     

     

    Legal Documents

    • African Union, Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa, Kampala,  23 October  2009.
    • African Union, Kampala Declaration on Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons in Africa, 23 October 2009.
    • IPCC, Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
    • Norwegian Refugee Council and Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (NRC/IDMC), “The Nansen Conference: Climate Change   and   Displacement   in   the   21st   Century,” 7   June   2011, available   at:

    http://www.refworld.org/docid/521485ef4.html (accessed Sep.9, 2015)

    • Organization of African Unity (OAU), Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, 10 September 1969, 1001 U.N.T.S. 45.
    • Regional Refugee Instruments & Related, Cartagena Declaration on Refugees, Colloquium on the International Protection of Refugees in Central America, Mexico and Panama, 22 November 1984.
    • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “The Copenhagen Climate Change Conference,” December 2009, Copenhagen, Denmark, available https://unfccc.int/meetings/copenhagen_dec_2009/meeting/6295.php (accessed Sep.9, 2015)
    • United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, 22 July 1998, E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2.
    • United Nations General Assembly, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, 137.
    • United nations General Assembly, Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 14 December 18950, A/RES.428 (V).
    • United Nations General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III).
      • United Nations General Assembly, 2005 World Summit Outcome: resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, 24 October 2005.
      • United Nations, Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1155, 331.

    Websites

    • Asian News Network, http://www.asianewsnet.net/news-28622.html (Accessed Feb.13, 2015)
    • British Broadcasting Corporation, http://www.bbc.co.uk/ (Accessed Apr.28, 2014)
    • Fleming, Melissa. “Climate change could become the biggest driver of displacement: UNHCR chief, UNHCR the UN Refugee Agency” (2009) from http://www.unhcr.org. (Accessed Jan. 7, 2014)
    • Introductory note by the Office of the UNHCR to the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, Geneva, Dec 2010,

    http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html (Accessed Sep.12, 2015)