International Studies Journal (ISJ)

International Studies Journal (ISJ)

Reassessing Civil Boycotts in International Law: From Coercive Tool to Human Rights Discourse

Document Type : Original Independent Original Article

Authors
Mohadeseh Ghavami Pour Sereshkeh 1
Amirreza Mahmoudi 2
Yasaman Ramezan Moghadam Vajari 1
1 Department of Law, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran
2 Assistant Prof. at Department of Law, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran
10.22034/isj.2025.527112.2348
Abstract
Boycott, historically conceived as a coercive instrument in international law, has evolved into a multifaceted phenomenon at the intersection of economic regulation, state sovereignty, and human rights. This study reassesses the legal status of boycotts by situating them within both the coercive practices traditionally used by states and the emerging human rights discourse shaping contemporary international relations. Employing a descriptive-analytical method, the article explores the conceptual contours of boycott, its distinction from embargo, and its normative evaluation under the United Nations Charter, World Trade Organization rules, and customary international law. Particular attention is given to the principles of proportionality, necessity, and non-discrimination as determinants of legitimacy, as well as to the jurisprudence of international bodies that have addressed boycott-related claims. Through historical and contemporary case studies, the paper demonstrates that while boycotts can serve as lawful non-military coercive measures, their effectiveness and legitimacy ultimately depend on conformity with international agreements, human rights standards, and diplomatic considerations. The findings underscore the need to reconceptualize boycott not only as a coercive practice but also as a tool embedded in broader transnational debates on accountability and human rights.
Keywords
civil boycott
international legitimacy
human rights
international law
non-state actions
transnational accountability
Subjects
1.      Akbaş, A. (2024). Savaş ve barış, sosyal çatışma sosyolojisi: Rusya-Ukrayna örneği. Journal of International Relations Studies, 4(1), 32–49. (In Turkish)
2.      Akbaş, İ. Ş. (2023). Birleşmiş Milletler ve Uluslararası Ceza Mahkemesi arasındaki ilişki. Ankara Barosu Dergisi, 81(4), 197–236. (In Turkish)
3.      Aharoni-Goldenberg, S., & Leisman, G. (2023). “Boycott”—A proposed legal definition put to test. Hofstra Labor & Employment Law Journal, 41, 91–124.
4.      Blum, Y. Z. (1978). Economic boycotts in international law. In Papers Presented at the Conference 1 (pp. 1–20). [Publisher not specified].
5.      Blum, Y. Z. (2016). Economic boycotts in international law. In Will “justice” bring peace? (pp. 1–20). Brill Nijhoff.
6.      Bloom, M. (2007). “I did not come here to defend myself”: Responding to war on terror detainees’ attempts to dismiss counsel and boycott the trial. Yale Law Journal, 117(70), 72–119.
7.      Bot, M. (2019). The right to boycott: BDS, law, and politics in a global context. Transnational Legal Theory, 10(3), 421–445.
8.      CFR Education Global Matters. (2023). Unilateralism versus multilateralism. Retrieved October 28, 2024, from: https://education.cfr.org/learn/learning-journey/approaches-foreign-policy/unilateralism-versus-multilateralism
9.      Cissé-Depardon, K., & N’Goala, G. (2009). The effects of satisfaction, trust and brand commitment on consumers’ decision to boycott. Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition), 24(1), 43–66.
10.   Erat, V. (2022). Boykot. In: Y. Özkaya, V. Erat, İ. Çoban İnce, & A. Duran (Eds.), Hukuk bilimleri ansiklopedisi (pp. 1–20). Nobel. (In Turkish)
11.   Eren, M. Y. (2012). Uluslararası hukukta savaşa varmayan kuvvet kullanma yolları. İnönü Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(2), 229–260. (In Turkish)
12.   Erakat, N. (2013). Boycott, divestment, sanctions: The global struggle for Palestinian rights. Journal of Palestine Studies, 42(2), 95–97.
13.   Friedman, M. (1985). Consumer boycotts in the United States, 1970–1980: Contemporary events in historical perspective. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 19(1), 96–117.
14.   Gazzini, T. (2006). The legal nature of WTO obligations and the consequences of their violation. European Journal of International Law, 17(4), 723–742.
15.   Gelb, B. D. (1995). More boycotts ahead? Some implications. Business Horizons, 38(2), 70–77
16.   Geweke, J. M. (2024). The management of international boycotts in historical perspective: Volkswagen and the Arab League boycott, 1960–1977. Business History. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2024.2340622
17.   Hakim, A., & Alexianu, M. (2025). Non-state sanctions. SSRN. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5146374
18.   Heath, J. B. (2024). Economic sanctions as legal ordering (Temple University Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2023-16). Temple University.
19.   International Court of Justice. (2024). Cases. Retrieved October 25, 2024, from https://www.icj-cij.org/cases
20.   International Law Commission. (2025). State responsibility draft articles. Retrieved January 9, 2025, from https://casebook.icrc.org/case-study/international-law-commission-articles-state-responsibility
21.   Grauvogel, J., Licht, A. A., & Von Soest, C. (2017). Sanctions and Signals: How International Sanction Threats Trigger Domestic Protest in Targeted Regimes. International Studies Quarterly, 61(1), 86-97
22.   Kenton, W. (2022, March 4). Embargo: What it means, how it works, and examples. Investopedia. Retrieved May 23, 2025, from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/embargo.asp
23.   Lasarov, W., Hoffmann, S., & Orth, U. (2023). Vanishing boycott impetus: Why and how consumer participation in a boycott decreases over time. Journal of Business Ethics, 182, 1129–1154.
24.   Longo, A. (2021). The use of boycott as a tool to protect fundamental norms of international law: The Baldassi decision. Diritti Umani e Diritto Internazionale, 489–499.
25.   Muir, J. D. (1974). The boycott in international law. The Journal of International Law and Economics, 187–204.
26.   . Rowhani, M. (2023). Rights‐Based Boundaries of the United Nations’ Sanctions. University of Bologna Law Review, 8(1), 1-38
27.   Schmidt, J. (2022). Legality of unilateral extra-territorial sanctions under international law. Journal of Conflict & Security Law, 27(1), 53–81.
28.   Shamshiyev, O. (2024). Consumer boycotts and jurisprudential challenges related to identifying their legal cause (‘Illah). İlahiyat Tetkikleri Dergisi, 61, 179–193.
29.   Steiner, H. (1976). International boycotts and domestic order: American involvement in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Texas Law Review, 54(7), 1355–1410.
30.   Şafak, E. (2021). Uluslararası hukukta yaptırım kavramı ve işleyişi bağlamında ABD’nin İran’a karşı uygulamış olduğu yaptırım kararının analizi. ESAM Ekonomik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 2(2), 310–337. (In Turkish)
31.   Taira, S. (2024). WTO dispute settlement and trade sanctions as permissible third-party countermeasures under customary international law. International Community Law Review, 26(1–2), 151–186.
32.   Topçuoğlu, A. A. (2016). Modern hukukta ve İslâm devletler hukukunda mukabele bilmisil kavramı ve hukukî niteliği. Turkish Studies, 11(12), 205–236. (In Turkish)
33.   Toprak, N. G. (2019). Ambargodan ablukaya doğru: Dış politikada iktisadi araçların kullanımı bağlamında Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nin İran’a yönelik iktisadi yaptırımları üzerine bir değerlendirme. International Conference on Eurasian Economies, 147–152. (In Turkish)
34.   Ülger, İ. K. (2022). Rusya’nın Ukrayna saldırısı ve AB içerisinde yeniden yapılanma arayışları. Bilge Strateji, 13(23), 9–17. (In Turkish)
35.   Uygun, A. G. (2023). Avrupa Birliği’nin Rusya’ya yönelik yaptırımları: Dış politika aracı olarak yaptırımlar. Troyacademy, 8(1), 136–155. (In Turkish)
36.   White, N. D. (2019). Ending the US embargo of Cuba: International law in dispute. Journal of Latin American Studies, 51(1), 163–186.
37.   White, N. D. (2024). Autonomous and collective sanctions in the international legal order [PDF]. University of Nottingham. Retrieved from https://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/52139/1/White%20IYIL%20Final%20Accepted%20Version.pdf
38.   Yu, Q., McManus, R., Yen, D. A., & Li, X. (2020). Tourism boycotts and animosity: A study of seven events. Annals of Tourism Research, 80, 1–16.