International Studies Journal (ISJ)

International Studies Journal (ISJ)

Evolution of Conflict Resolution Tools in Europe: From Force to Diplomacy

Document Type : Original Independent Original Article

Authors
Gholam Ali Chegnizadeh 1
Ali Esmaeili Ardakani 2
Mohammad Reza Ahmaddoust Estalaki 3
1 Associated Prof. at International Relations, Allameh Tabataba'i University.
2 Assistant Prof. at International Relations, Allameh Tabataba'i University.
3 Ph.D. Student of International Relations at Guilan University.
10.22034/isj.2025.472287.2212
Abstract
Conflict is a natural phenomenon in human social life, yet the tools for managing it have not been uniform across historical periods. Prior to the Treaty of Westphalia, conflicts were resolved through subjugation and the exercise of force. However, the religious Thirty Years' War demonstrated that force no longer retained its former effectiveness. From that point onwards, the balance of power and diplomacy emerged in European relations. This article seeks to elucidate the components and processes that can be used to evaluate the role and position of diplomacy in resolving Europe's conflicts and crises. The findings indicate that, following the Renaissance, a set of factors, trends, and events accumulated over centuries, resulting in the prioritization of diplomacy over force. An interplay of national and structural trends influenced the shift of Europeans' conflict resolution tools from force to diplomacy. Europeans gradually learned the connection between survival and diplomacy. The structural imperatives and constraints that manifested in the emergence of the balance of power system, coupled with a shared historical memory, a common lived experience, a relatively shared identity and culture, a common enemy, and relatively shared values ​​and beliefs, as well as numerous other factors, such as the belief in solutions that yield maximum benefits at minimal cost, accumulated in Europe over centuries. They led to a heightened desire and determination among Europeans to prioritize peaceful approaches. This research, conducted using a descriptive-explanatory approach within a historical sociology framework, underscores the historical processes that led to the prominence of diplomacy in Europe.

Highlights

Introduction
Conflict is an inherent aspect of human social life. However, the methods employed to manage it have differed across historical eras. Exertion of force served as a key, central, and highly effective tool for managing competition and resolving disputes until a certain point in history. In Europe, too, before the Treaty of Westphalia, conflicts were resolved through subjugation and the use of force. Yet the religious Thirty Years' War revealed that force no longer held its previous efficacy, and its limitations prevented nations from relying on it exclusively to advance their foreign policies. From then on, Europe required alternative tools for social coexistence. Thus, the balance of power system and diplomacy emerged in European relations, gradually becoming an established reality of international social life. This article seeks to answer the question: Based on what components and processes can we evaluate the role and position of diplomacy in resolving Europe's conflicts and crises?

 

Methodology
This qualitative study employs a descriptive-analytical approach and aims to present practical results and lessons for Iran. Using a historical sociology method, it examines the transformation of conflict resolution tools in Europe. Historical sociology enables a nuanced analysis of historical changes and social processes over multiple levels through time. Thus, this method is suitable and necessary for the present subject, which seeks to gain a deep understanding of the socio-historical and international dimensions in the evolution of conflict resolution tools in the international arena.

 

Findings
After the Renaissance, a new conception of humanity emerged in Europe. The Renaissance placed survival and prosperous living at the forefront of life for Europeans. This new human no longer wished to sacrifice his life easily for others. This shift led Europeans, who were previously quick to mobilize for war, to gradually favour more peaceful, low-cost conflict resolution tools. The development of these attitudes did not occur abruptly or uniformly across all European societies; rather, their intellectual seeds were sown during the Renaissance and grew stronger over time. As multiple wars increasingly disrupted people's livelihoods and well-being, the need for more peaceful methods of managing disputes became ever more evident.

The findings of this research indicate that through bitter historical experiences filled with internal conflicts, Europeans came to realize the limitations of force. They understood that relying on force alone is neither an effective tool for managing competition and settling disputes nor a guarantee for a state's survival. Historical experience indicated that the use of force was limited in utility and that any results it achieved were unstable. The agreements or gains made through force could not quell the defeated party's desire for revenge or guarantee the maintenance of the status quo in the future. Conversely, historical examinations revealed that the results of diplomatically achieved agreements were more stable and reliable because they were based on the mutual will of the parties involved, contained elements of reciprocal satisfaction, and thus were more sustainable.

An analysis of European history shows that the structure of the international system and its arrangements play a pivotal role in determining whether force or diplomacy takes precedence in times of conflict and crisis. As a peaceful tool for organizing relations, managing competition, and resolving conflicts, diplomacy becomes prioritized in an international system on whose arrangements states agree—especially the great powers. Such a system is realized under a balance of power accompanied by legitimacy. Therefore, the role of a balance of power and legitimating it is paramount in prioritizing diplomatic endeavours.

Europe experienced a legitimate balance of power in two historical periods: after the Congress of Vienna and after World War II. The continent's longest eras of peace coincided with these periods—eras in which diplomacy served as the primary regulator of relations and the principal crisis-management tool. European history provides examples of two unsuccessful methods of achieving integration through subjugation—methods influenced by universalist claims in which recognition of diversity and plurality had no place and state individuality risked obliteration. In one such period, the Habsburg Empire tried unsuccessfully to establish a singular rule across Europe by blending imperial grandeur with Catholicism. In another method, a leading nation attempted to homogeni

Keywords
Diplomacy
Force
Europe
Realism
Conflict Resolution
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