جایگاه کشمکش‌ها، انقلاب‌ها و جنگ‌ها در تکامل مفهوم حقوق بشر

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[1]. Hohfeld, WH Fundamental Legal Conception As Applied in Judicial Reasoning, Yale University Press, London  1923, Chapter 1

[1]. Gasiokwu, M.O.U. Human Right History Ideology & Law, Fab Education Books, Jos, 2003, 10

[1]. Dowrick, F.E. Human Rights, Problems Perspectives and Texts, Westrned, U.K, 1979, 8-9.

[1]. Blacks Law Dictionary, (ed) Bryan A Garner, 7th edition, St. Paul Minn, (WestGroup) 1999, 1322.

[1]. Lien, W.H.A Fragment of Thoughts Concerning the Nature and Fulfillment of Human Right. Greenwood Press Publishers, West Port,1973, 144-5

[1]. Cranston, MW,  What are Human Rights?, Taplinger Publishing Company, New York,1973, 9

[1]. Ishay, M.R. The History of Human Rights; From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era, University of California Press Berkley, 2004, 3

[1]. Ibid,5

[1]. Bentham J and Bowring J., The Works of Jeremy Bentham Vol II, W Tait, 1843, 500-501

[1]. Patterson EW, “Hans Kelsen and His Pure Theory of Law”, 40 Cal. L. Rev. (1954)

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[1]. Eze O. Human Rights in Africa: Some Selected Problems, N.I.I.A and Macmillan Nig. Pub. Ltd, Lagos,1984, 5

[1]. Gasiokwu M.O.U. Op. cit 23

[1]. See Sections 6 (6) (c) and 13 CFRN. The Constitution of India has similar provisions in Articles 36 to 51.Article 37 specifically provides that “the provision contained in  this part shall not be enforceable by any court”

[1]. See Colegrove v. Green 328 U.S. 549, 556 per Justice Frankfurther, where the Justice, commenting on some command in the U.S. Constitution agreed that they are not justiciable because they fall outside the condition and purpose that circumscribe judicial action.

[1]. Jawitsch L.S. The General Theory of Law, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1980, 193-194

[1]. Gasiokwu,  4

[1].  1 Corinthian 7:21-22, Philemon 1-25 Colossian 3: 22-23 

[1]. Gasiokwu Op. cit at 51

[1].  Loc. cit  at 51

[1]. According to the International Labour Organization about21 million men, women and children around the world are in a form of slavery archived from: www.antislavery.org on 19/2/15

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[1]. Quashigah K. “The Philosophical Bases of Human Right and its Relation to Africa: A critique” Journal of Human Rights and Practice, Vol2. Nos 1 & 2,(1992)  .P 22-29

[1].  John Locke, Second Treaties on Civil Government, Everyman Library 1924

[1]. Ishay M. 57

[1]. English translation of the Magna Carta, British Library, retrieved from www.bl.uk on 19/2/15

[1]. Dias RWM, Jurisprudence, Butterworths, London, 1985,97

[1].  Edward Vallance, “The Glorious Revolution” archived from www. bbc.co. uk  on 20/2/15

[1]. Ibid

[1]. Prof Richard Holmes, The American War of Independence: The Rebels and the Redcoats. Retrieved from www.bbc.co.uk on 20/2/15. See also: Rebels and Redcoats. The American Revolutionary War, Harper Collins; New Ed.

[1]. Ishay M.73

[1]. Dr. Quintard Taylor Jr, United States History archieved from www. faculty. washington.edu on 20/2/15; Note that the love for and agitation for civil liberties was so strong that Patrick Henry was quoted on 23rd March 1775 to have stated in a speech “give me liberty or give me death

[1]. US National Archives website. http://www.archives. gov/exhibits/ charters/ declaration_transcript.html

[1]. The Charters of Freedom “ A new world is at Hand” Declaration of Independence 4th July 1776 archived from www.archives.gov on 20/2/15

[1]. The US Constitution (as amended)

[1]. Dred Scotts v, Sandford, 60 U.S 393 (1857)

[1]. History of Brown v. Board of Education, retrieved from www.uscourts.gov 0n 21/2/15

[1]. Plessy v. Ferguson , 163 U.S . 537 (1896)

[1].  See also the following cases:

1.               i.  Murray v, Maryland, 169 Md. 478 (1936)
2.             ii.  Missouri ex rel Gaines v. Canada, 305 U.S. 337 (1938)
3.           iii.  Sweat v. Painter 339 U.S. 629 (1950)
4.           iv.  Mclaurin v. Aklahoma Board of Regerts of Higher Education 339 U.S. 637 (1950)
5.             v.  Bworn v. Board of Education of top era 347 U.S.483 (1954)

[1].  French Revolution: Facts and Summary retrieved from www. history. com

[1]. A Documented History of Communism, compiled by Robert v. Daniels,© 1985 I.B . Taris Co. Ltd, London; archived from; https:// www. martists. org/history on 21/2/15

[1]. How  Did the First World War Start? – The Week Sourced from , www. theweek.co.uk on 21/2/15

[1]. Treaty of Versailles

[1]. World War II – Battles, facts retrieved from www. history.com/ topics/world-war-II on 22/2/15

[1].  “History of the United Nations” archived from www.un.org/ en/aboutum/ history/ sanfrancisco-conference on 23/2/15

[1]. Because of its historical significance and for clarity, we hereby reproduce the proclamation:

“Now, therefore, THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims this universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all actions, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedom and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member states themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.”

[1]. Ibid

[1]. Ibid ;29

[1]. Defined as placing limitations upon the powers of the government,:- B.O. Nwabueze, ‘Constitutionalism in the Emergent States,’ [Associated University Press, 1973] at pg. 1

[1]. Makinda, Samuel M ‘The United Nations and state sovereignty: Mechanism for managing international security’ (1998)33.1 Australian Journal of Political Science 101-115.

[1]. Green, James A., and Francis Grimal ,’Threat of Force as an Action in Self-Defense under International Law’,  (2011)44 Vand. J. Transnat'l L 285.

[1]. Rytter, J.E,  ‘Humanitarian Intervention without the Security Council: From San Francisco to Kosovo  and Beyond’(2001)70, Nordic J. Int'l L. N 65

[1]. Nicaragua v USA(merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14

[1]. Corfu Channel Case (UK v Albania) (Merits) [1949] ICJ Rep 4

[1]. See also A. Cassese International Law, (2nd ed., Oxford 2005) 48-52;

[1]. Nicaragua(nt17)293

[1]. Ibid 106

[1]. Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945, ( signed on 26 June 1945, came into force on 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS XVI (UN Charter ) art2(1)

[1]. Nicaragua case ( nt 16)

[1].The New America; Iran and Shah; what really happened retrieved from www.thenewamerican.com on 22/2/13

[1]. Archived from www.iranchambers.com

[1]. “- Iran and the Shah”: what happened to supra?

[1]. www.iranchamber.com

[1]. “36 years after the revolution, where is Iran now? Sourced from  www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/02/iran-revolution

[1]. the Rwanda Genocide

[1]. -- ,’Libya Profile’  <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13755445> BBC NEWS AFRICA 16 February 2015 accesed on 14 January 2014

[1]. --‘The Libyan crisis causes mass migrant return’ ACTED September06, 2011<http://www.acted.org/en/libyan-crisis-causes-mass-migrant-returns>accessed 14December 2014

[1]. Michel Chossudovsky, ‘Imperial Conquest: America’s “Long War” against Humanity’(Rosa Luxemburg Conference, Berlin, January 11, 2014.)< http:// www.globalresearch.ca/imperial-conquest-americas-long-war-against-humanity/5364215> accessed 13 December 2014

[1].Seehttps://libyanfreepress.wordpress.com/2012/02/11/libyan-crisis-events-causes - and-facts-video-documentary/h

[1]. Ahmida AA  ‘Libya, Social Origins of Dictatorship, and the Challenge for Democracy’,[2012]3 Middle East Afr.70-81

[1]. Masetti, Oliver, et al ‘Two years of Arab Spring’[2013] Deutche Bank Research 1-14.

[1]. --‘Libya chaos created by NATO intervention’ Jamahiriya  News 2011<http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-15397566> accessed on 13 December 2014

[1].  Jon Lee Anderson, ‘Who are the rebels”?’,[2011] The New Yorker http:// m.newyorker.com/talk/comment/2011/04/04/110404taco_talk_anderson  accessed on 13 December 2014

[1]. Engdahl FW, ‘Humanitarian Neo-colonialism: Framing Libya and

Reframing War’( Global Research 4 May 2011) <http:// www. Globalresearch . ca/humanitarian-neo-colonialism-framing-libya-andreframing -war/24617> accessed on 14 December 2014

[1]. Simma, Bruno , ‘NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects’, [1999]10European Journal of International Law 1-22

[1]. Jonathan Freedland, ‘Libya crisis may save Nicolas Sarkozy from electoral humiliation’ (The Guardian,

20. March 2011) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/20/libya-crisis-nicolas- sarkozyelectoral?INTCMP=SRCH> accessed on 15 December 2014

[1]. Zifcak, Spencer ‘Responsibility to Protect after Libya and Syria’(2012)13 Melb. J. Int'l L59.

[1]. (paragraph 15 – 16).

[1].Thakur, Ramesh. ‘R2P after Libya and Syria: engaging emerging powers’ (2013) 36.2  The Washington Quarterly 61-76.

[1]. -- Libyan rebels defeated in last enclave west of Tripoli as Gaddafi forces advance on Benghazi (Daily Post15 March 2011 ) < http: //www. dailymail. co.uk/news/article-1366430/Libya-war-Rebels-defeated-near-Tripoli-Gaddafi-forces-advance-Benghazi.html#ixzz3SDU8QjvU> accessed on 15 December 2014

[1]. Ibid

[1]. Martin Chilov ‘Libya: Gaddafi's defeated forces face up to a new reality’(The Guardian Aug 26, 2011)<http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/26/libya-gaddafi-forces-admit-defeat> accessed on 15 December 2014

[1]. Ms. Abeer Al-Khraisha, ‘United Nations Security Council Refers Libya to the ICC

ICC Prosecutor to Decide whether to Investigate Alleged Crimes against Humanity’ ( Coalaition for International Criminal court 27Feb  2011) <http:// www.coalitionfortheicc.org/documents/CICCAdvisory_UNSCReferral_Lybia_27Feb2011_Final.pdf> accessed on 7 December 2014

[1]. UNSC Res1970 (26 February 2011)UN Doc S/RES/1970

[1]. DapoAkande, ‘International Law Immunities and the International Criminal Court,’ (2004)98 AM. J. INT’L L. 407, 432–33

[1]. William A. Schabas, ‘United States Hostility to the International Criminal Court: It’s All About the Security Council,’ 14 (2004)15 EUR. J. INT’L L. 701, 712

[1]. Daniel Donovan, ‘International Criminal Court: Successes and Failures Of the Past and Goals for the Future’(INT’L POLICY DIGEST Mar. 23, 2012) <http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2012/03/23/international-criminal-courtsuccesses-and-failures-of-the-past-and-goals-for-the-future/.> accessed on 15 December 2014

[1]. Beth Van Schaack,’ The Principle of Legality in International Criminal Law’ (Santa Clara Univ. Legal Studies Research Paper Aug 14, 2010) <http://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/facpubs/634> accessed on 16 December 2014

[1]. Darryl Robinson, ‘The Identity Crisis of International Criminal Law’(2008)21 Leiden J.Int’l L. 925

[1]. Gary T. Dempsey, ‘Reasonable Doubt: The Case Against the Proposed International Criminal Court 12’ (Cato, Policy Analysis No. 311, July 16, 1998), <http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-311es.html.> accessed on 24 November 2014

[1]. --‘UN security council resolution 1973 (2011) on Libya’(The Guardian." 1 Aug. 2011)  <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/17/unsecurity-council-resolution>  accessed on 14 december

[1]. David A. Fahrenthold, ‘House rebukes Obama on Libya mission, but does not demand withdrawal’ (The Washington Post June 3, 2011) <http:// www.washingtonpost.com/politics/house-rebukes-obama-on-libya-mission-but-does-not-demand-withdrawal/2011/06/03/AGdrK8HH_story.html>  accessed on 17?december 2014

[1]. Delahunty, Robert J., ‘War Powers Irresolution: The Obama Administration and the Libyan Intervention’ (2011)12  St. Thomas Legal Studies Research 11-17,12

[1]. Payandeh, Mehrdad, ‘The United Nations, Military Intervention, and Regime Change in Libya’(2012)52. Virginia Journal of International Law  357–358.

[1]. Ibid

[1]. in Minerva Mills Ltd. and Ors. v. Union of India and Ors (1980) AIR 1789, 1981 SCR (1) 206

[1]. THE MINERVA CASE (supra)

[1]. Supra

[1]. For more details visit the following websites:- www.bloomberg.com/ graphics / 2015-flash-point, www.thisismoney.co.uk/.../city-focus-five-greatest-threat & www.cfr.org/globalconflicttracker

[1]. See Article 20,21 and 22 of the African Charter on human and people’s rights