[1]. Raymond Hinnebusch, “Syria,” in Ellen Lust, ed., The Middle East, 14th Ed., Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2017, pp. 781-807; see pp. 790-791.
[1]. Ibid., p. 791.
[1]. Ibid., p. 792.
[1]. Fanar Haddad, “Sectarian Relations and Sunni Identity in Post-Civil War Iraq,” in Lawrence G. Potter, ed., Sectarian Politics in the Persian Gulf, New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, pp. 67-115; see p. 83.
[1]. Anshel Pfeffer, "Why the Arab Spring Failed: Choosing Survival over Chaos." Haaretz. Haaretz, 20 Jan. 2016. Web. 2 Aug. 2016.
[1]. "Syria's Civil War Explained." Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 24 May 2016. Web. 2 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Mahmood Monshipouri, Claude Welch, and Khashayar Nikazmrad. "Protecting Human Rights in the Era of Uncertainty: How Not to Lose the War against ISIS." Journal of Human Rights (2016): 1.Taylor & Francis Online. Web. 1 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Steven Lee Myers. "U.S. and Allies Say Syria Leader Must Step Down."The New York Times. The New York Times, 18 Aug. 2011. Web. 03 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Mohammed Ayoob,Will the Middle East Implode? Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2014. 98. Print.
[1]. Samer Abboud, "Introduction." Syria. United Kingdom: Polity Press, 2016. 5. Print.
[1]. Stephen Starr. Revolt in Syria: Eye-witness to the Uprising. New York: Columbia UP, 2012. 53. Print.
[1]. "Syria's Profile-Timeline." BBC News. BBC News, 6 May 2016. Web. 3 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Mohammed Ayoob, op. cit., p. 11.
[1]. Ibid., p. 168.
[1]. Tony Badran, "Alawistan." Foreign Policy Alawistan Comments. FP News, 27 July 2012. Web. 03 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Mohammed Ayoob, op. cit., p. 1.
[1]. Ibid.
[1]. "U.S. Defense Chief: Syria Military Must Remain Intact When Assad Goes." Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 30 July 2012. Web. 03 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Mahmood Monshipouri, Democratic Uprisings in the New Middle East: Youth, Technology, Human Rights, and US Foreign Policy. Boulder: Paradigm, 2014. 156. Print.
[1]. Ibid.
[1]. Paul MclLeary, Paul. "The Pentagon Wasted $500 Million Training Syrian Rebels. It’s About to Try Again." Foreign Policy. Foreign Policy, 18 Mar. 2016. Web. 5 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Mohammed Ayoob, op. cit., p 5.
[1]. Neil MacFarquhar, “Russia and Turkey Vow to Repair Ties as West Watches Nervously,” The New York Times, August 10, 2016, p. A6.
[1]. Raymond Hinnebusch, “The Foreign Policy of Syria,” in Raymond Hinnebusch and Anoushiravan Ehteshami, eds., The Foreign Policies of Middle East States, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2014, pp. 207-232; see p. 230.
[1]. Ibid., pp. 230-231.
[1]. Joseph Nye, “The Intervention Dilemma,” Al Jazeera, June 13, 2012, Global Policy Forum, available at
[1]. Barak Barfi, "The Real Reason Why Iran Backs Syria." The National Interest. The National Interest, 24 Jan. 2016. Web. 4 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Luke Coffey, "Russia's Emerging Naval Presence in the Mediterranean." Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 27 May 2016. Web. 4 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Rick Gladstone, "Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions." The New York Times. The New, 19 July 2012. Web. 5 Aug. 2016.
[1]. "Turkey Condemns Russia, Assad Regime for Hitting Civilian Targets in Aleppo." Hurriyet Daily News. Hurriyet, 9 June 2016. Web. 4 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Mohammed Ayoob, op. cit., p. 99.
[1]. Nicole Gaouette, "US Adds ISIS Affiliates to Terror List." CNN. Cable News Network, 19 May 2016. Web. 05 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Stephen M. Walt, “ISIS as Revolutionary State,” Foreign Affairs, November/December 2015, available at
[1]. Daniel Byman, “Six Bad Options for Syria,” The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 4, Winter 2016, pp. 171-186; see p. 180.
[1]. Ibid.
[1]. Dennis B. Ross and Andrew J. Tabler. "The Case for (Finally) Bombing Assad." The New York Times. The New York Times, August 3, 2016. Web. 3 Aug. 2016.
[1]. Kenneth M. Pollack, “US Policy Toward a Turbulent Middle East,” March 24, 2015, available at
[1]. Philippe Droz-Vincent, “The Military amidst Uprisings and Transitions in the Arab World,” in Fawaz A. Gerges, ed., The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014, pp. 180-208; see p. 205.
[1]. Scott Anderson and Paolo Pellegrin, “Fractured Lands,” The New York Time Magazine, August 14, 2016, pp. 4-58; see p. 36.
[1]. Rania Abouzeid, “Who Will Control the Syrian Rebels’ Guns?” The New Yorker, June 14, 2013, available at
[1]. Philippe Droz-Vincent, op. cit., p. 204.
[1]. Ibid., p. 205.
[1]. Richard W. Mansback and Kirsten L. Taylor, Challenges for America in the Middle East, Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2017, p. 104.
[1]. Steven W. Hook and John Spanier, American Foreign Policy Since World War II, 20th Edition, Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016, p. 313.
[1]. Nicholas Kristof, “Obama’s Worst Mistake,” The New York Times, August 11, 2016, p. A21.
[1]. Christopher Harmer, “U.S. Options for a Syria No-Fly Zone,” Institute for the Study of War, November 2, 2015, available at
[1]. Ibid.
[1]. Ibid.
[1]. Bassam Haddad, “Syria, the Arab Uprisings, and the Political Economy of Authoritarian Resilience,” in Clement Henry & Jang Ji-Hyang, eds., The Arab Spring: Will It Lead to Democratic Transitions? Seoul, Korea: The Asian Institute for Policy Studies, 2012, pp. 211-226; see p. 225.
[1]. Neil MacFarquhar and David E. Sanger, “In a First, Russia uses an Iran Base for its Syria Campaign,” The New York Times, August 16, 2016, available at
[1]. “What Russia and Turkey Bring to Syria,” an editorial piece in The New York Times, August 11, 2016, p. A20.
[1]. Fawaz Gerges, “The Evolution of Islamic Movements,” in Clement Henry & Jang Ji-Hyang, eds., The Arab Spring: Will It Lead to Democratic Transitions? Seoul, Korea: The Asian Institute for Policy Studies, 2012, pp. 135-140; see p. 138.
[1]. Ibid.